GENDER STEREOTYPES AND PROFESSIONAL LEGITIMACY: A CROSS-NATIONAL ANALYSIS

ГЕНДЕРНЫЕ СТЕРЕОТИПЫ И ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНАЯ ЛЕГИТИМНОСТЬ: МЕЖСТРАНОВОЙ АНАЛИЗ

Турдыбек Жанерке

студент, Южно-Казахстанский педагогический университет  имени Узбекали Жанибекова, Казахстан, г. Шымкент

Абдиссадык Айганым

студент, Южно-Казахстанский педагогический университет  имени Узбекали Жанибекова, Казахстан, г. Шымкент

Abstract. This article examines how gender stereotypes affect perceptions of professional legitimacy across different national contexts. Professional legitimacy the perception that someone in a given profession is appropriately qualified, credible, and socially accepted is not gender-neutral; it is shaped by cultural gender norms, expectations of competence, and leadership ideals. We investigate 1) the origins of gender stereotypes in early socialization, media, and institutional structures; 2) how these stereotypes influence gendered perceptions of competence; and 3) the persistent leadership gap between men and women in professional roles. Conversely, in societies with stronger gender equality norms, the gap shrinks but does not disappear; subtle biases expectations about warmth vs. agency, leadership style, and relational roles still disadvantage women. The article concludes with implications for policy, for organizational practice, and for future research on how legitimacy is co-constructed in cross-cultural settings.

Аннотация. В данной статье исследуется, каким образом гендерные стереотипы влияют на восприятие профессиональной легитимности в различных национальных контекстах. Профессиональная легитимность — восприятие того, что человек, занимающий определённую профессию, обладает соответствующей квалификацией, авторитетом и социальным признанием, — не является гендерно нейтральным явлением; она формируется под воздействием культурных гендерных норм, ожиданий в отношении компетентности и идеалов лидерства. Мы исследуем:1) происхождение гендерных стереотипов в процессе ранней социализации, в средствах массовой информации и институциональных структурах; 2) то, как эти стереотипы влияют на гендерно детерминированное восприятие компетентности; и 3) устойчивый разрыв в лидерских позициях между мужчинами и женщинами в профессиональных ролях. Напротив, в обществах, где нормы гендерного равенства более выражены, этот разрыв сокращается, но не исчезает полностью; скрытые формы предвзятости — ожидания, связанные с проявлением теплоты по сравнению с агентностью, стилем лидерства и характером ролевых взаимоотношений — по-прежнему ставят женщин в менее выгодное положение. Статья завершается анализом последствий, имеющих значение для государственной политики, организационной практики и будущих научных исследований, направленных на изучение того, как легитимность со-конструируется в межкультурных условиях.

Keywords: Professional legitimacy, Gender stereotypes, Competence perceptions, Leadership gap, Role congruity theory, Cross-national comparison, Gender norms

Ключевые слова: профессиональная легитимность, гендерные стереотипы, восприятие компетентности, гендерные нормы, лидерский разрыв, теория ролевого соответствия, межстрановой анализ.

Introduction

Gender stereotypes have deep historical and cultural roots. They originate from the early division of labour, which associated men with public and productive spheres (leadership, politics, science) and women with private and reproductive spheres (caregiving, teaching, nurturing). These early patterns were institutionalized through education, religion, and media, reinforcing distinct expectations for each gender.

From early childhood, socialization processes teach boys and girls different emotional responses, communication styles, and career aspirations. Textbooks, advertisements, and popular culture perpetuate the image of men as agentic and women as communal. Over time, these binary expectations evolve into implicit biases that affect judgments in professional settings. For instance, a confident man may be perceived as decisive, while a confident woman may be viewed as aggressive or unfeminine a pattern known as the double bind.

Cross-nationally, the strength and content of these stereotypes differ. Research shows that industrialized and individualistic societies may exhibit subtler forms of bias favouring equality in principle yet still associating leadership with masculinity. In contrast, societies with more traditional gender ideologies may display overt scepticism toward women’s competence or authority.

Competence is a cornerstone of professional legitimacy, yet perceptions of competence are not gender-neutral. According to role congruity theory (Eagly & Karau, 2002), prejudice arises when there is a mismatch between gender stereotypes and the characteristics perceived as necessary for success in a particular role. In many professions especially those emphasizing rationality, authority, or technical expertise the ideal worker is implicitly male.

Women are often evaluated through a narrower lens of expectations: they must demonstrate both warmth and agency, a balance that men are rarely required to maintain. When women display assertiveness, they may be penalized for violating gender norms; when they display warmth, they may be seen as less competent. This phenomenon, sometimes referred to as the competence–likability trade-off, systematically undermines women’s credibility and slows career advancement.

Moreover, the evaluation of competence is influenced by contextual and cultural factors. For example, in collectivist societies, teamwork and relational harmony may be valued more highly, potentially narrowing gender gaps in perceived competence. Conversely, in competitive and individualistic cultures, the masculine-coded model of assertive competence tends to dominate, deepening gender disparities.

Materials and Methods

The study employs both comparative and analytical methods to examine the relationship between gender stereotypes and perceptions of professional legitimacy. A qualitative content analysis was conducted based on existing theoretical frameworks and empirical findings from cross-cultural research. The comparative method was applied to identify similarities and differences in how gender norms influence evaluations of competence and leadership across various national contexts.

The analysis draws upon scholarly literature, survey data, and institutional reports that address issues of gender representation, legitimacy, and leadership perception. In addition, the study integrates insights from the role congruity theory (Eagly & Karau, 2002) and the lack-of-fit model (Heilman, 1983) to interpret the mechanisms through which gender bias operates. The synthesis of these sources allows for a deeper understanding of how sociocultural structures shape professional legitimacy and how these dynamics vary across societies with differing levels of gender equality.

Results and discussions

The persistence of a leadership gap and the underrepresentation of women in senior positions, is both a consequence and a perpetuator of gendered legitimacy. Despite comparable education levels and workforce participation rates, women remain less likely to occupy decision-making roles across politics, academia, and corporate environments.

This disparity stems partly from the “think leader–think male” bias: leadership is often associated with traits like dominance, control, and rationality, which align with masculine stereotypes. Women aspiring to leadership must therefore navigate conflicting expectations, being strong enough to lead yet gentle enough to be accepted. These contradictory standards discourage women’s participation and shape how colleagues and subordinates assess their authority.

Cross-national research reveals that countries with robust gender equality policies show smaller leadership gaps, while those with traditional gender hierarchies maintain larger disparities. Nevertheless, even in egalitarian contexts, subtle biases such as doubts about women’s ambition or resilience persist. Addressing this gap thus requires more than legal reforms; it demands cultural transformation in how societies define and value leadership itself.

Despite the progress made by women in achieving their career goals and occupying leading positions, they still remain underrepresented in top management roles compared to men. For example, in the United States, only about 5.2% of the highest-ranking CEOs in the largest companies are women, whereas in 1996 this figure was around 1.9%. This phenomenon can be described as the “glass ceiling”, an invisible barrier that prevents women from advancing to higher leadership positions, such as ministers or corporate executives.

One of the key explanations for this phenomenon lies in gender stereotypes, which create a perceived mismatch between the roles of women and those of leaders (Eagly & Karau, 2002). Stereotypes about men and women are often based on their socially assigned roles and behaviours. Research shows that women are typically perceived as more expressive and communicative, while men are viewed as more assertive and competent. Cann and Siegfried examined the relationship between attention and initiative structures in male and female behaviour, finding that attentiveness is associated with femininity, whereas initiative is perceived as masculine.

Similarly, Virginia Schein conducted pioneering research in the United States, asking participants to describe a typical successful manager, a typical man, and a typical woman. The results revealed that the characteristics of a successful manager decisiveness, confidence, authority, and rationality were more strongly associated with men than with women. This gave rise to the well-known expression “think manager - think male.” Later studies conducted in other countries such as Germany, the United Kingdom, China, and Japan confirmed that this bias is not limited to the United States but exists across different.

When a woman occupies a leadership role, many still believe that her qualities do not fully match the traditional expectations of a leader. People are accustomed to perceiving a leader as a man strong, determined, and assertive. As a result, prejudice arises even before a woman becomes a leader, with many doubting her potential. Once she assumes a leadership position, she is often criticized for being either “too soft” or “too aggressive,” reflecting the role incongruity dilemma described by Eagly and Karau. Thus, social expectations of women and leaders do not align, making it difficult for women to be perceived as “ideal leaders.”

Scholars have also noted that the influence of gender stereotypes on leadership varies across cultures. According to Eagly and Karau’s (2002) role congruity theory, when more women participate in leadership positions within a society, the perception of female leaders tends to improve. To examine this, cross-cultural comparisons have been made among Australia, Germany, and India. The findings indicate that Australia has a high level of gender equality, with many women participating in politics and business. Germany also demonstrates significant gender equality, though slightly lower than Australia. In contrast, India shows lower gender equality and fewer women in leadership positions.

These results highlight that cultural context plays a crucial role in shaping the perception of leadership and gender roles. In societies with higher gender equality and greater participation of women in leadership, stereotypes about “male” and “female” leadership traits tend to weaken. Therefore, promoting women’s participation in leadership not only enhances gender equality but also transforms the very understanding of leadership itself.

International institutions play a crucial role in promoting gender equality around the world. One of the most significant approaches developed in recent decades is gender mainstreaming. According to the United Nations, gender mainstreaming means applying a gender perspective to all policies and programs so that, before any decisions are made, their potential impact on women and men is carefully analyzed. This concept was formally adopted in the Beijing Platform for Action (1995), which called on all member states to integrate gender perspectives into all areas of policymaking to eliminate discrimination and promote equal opportunities.

Gender mainstreaming first appeared in the field of international development in the 1980s as a response to the limitations of the earlier Women in Development (WID) approach. While WID mainly focused on women’s participation in economic activities, it often ignored the deeper social and structural inequalities that limited women’s empowerment. Later, feminist scholars and activists developed the Gender and Development (GAD) paradigm, which emphasized that true equality requires changing gender power relations both in public institutions and in the private sphere. Gender mainstreaming, which emerged from this approach, sought to make gender equality a central part of all international policies rather than a separate issue.

Scholars also point out that gender mainstreaming can sometimes become symbolic rather than transformative. In some institutions, it is treated as a technical or bureaucratic procedure rather than as a genuine commitment to equality. As a result, policies may include “gender language” but fail to challenge the deeper power structures and stereotypes that maintain inequality. For instance, in organizations like the World Bank and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), gender equality is often framed as a tool for economic growth rather than a social justice goal.

Nevertheless, international institutions continue to play an essential role in advancing gender equality. Global frameworks such as the UN Women, the ILO conventions, and the EU’s gender equality strategies help create standards that national governments can follow. When implemented effectively, gender mainstreaming promotes women’s visibility, participation, and leadership at all levels of decision-making. It also helps to redefine traditional views of leadership and power, encouraging a more inclusive and equitable global society.

Conclusion

In conclusion, gender stereotypes continue to play a significant role in shaping perceptions of leadership and professional legitimacy across the world. Despite the growing number of women achieving career success and entering leadership positions, societal expectations and traditional gender norms still influence how their competence and authority are perceived. Theories such as Heilman’s (1983) lack of fit model and Eagly and Karau’s (2002) role congruity theory explain that women are often evaluated less favourably in leadership contexts because their perceived characteristics are seen as inconsistent with the traits traditionally associated with effective leaders. As a result, women face a persistent double standard being judged as either too feminine to lead or too masculine to be accepted.

Empirical studies across different countries demonstrate that this bias is not limited to one culture or society. The global phenomenon of “think manager, think male” continues to influence people’s beliefs about what a leader should look like, despite decades of progress in gender equality. However, cross-national comparisons show that in societies with higher levels of gender equality — such as Australia and parts of Europe stereotypes about leadership and gender are gradually weakening. This suggests that cultural and institutional contexts play a vital role in shaping gender perceptions and leadership opportunities.

At the international level, organizations such as the United Nations, the International Labour Organization, and the European Union have taken significant steps to promote gender equality through gender mainstreaming policies. These initiatives aim to integrate a gender perspective into all areas of policymaking, ensuring that both men’s and women’s needs are considered. Although the implementation of gender mainstreaming has faced challenges, it remains an essential mechanism for reducing inequality and transforming traditional power structures. By addressing both institutional and cultural barriers, international organizations help to redefine leadership and encourage more inclusive decision-making processes.

Ultimately, progress toward gender equality in leadership requires a combination of cultural change, institutional reform, and continuous advocacy. Breaking down gender stereotypes and promoting women’s legitimacy in professional and political spheres is not only a matter of fairness but also a crucial step toward building more balanced and effective global governance. As more women take leadership roles and as institutions commit to genuine equality, the perception of leadership itself will evolve from being defined by gender to being defined by competence, vision, and integrity.